Temporal identity and learning

All species exhibit a mixture of constraints and degrees of freedom in relation to the temporal dimension. In other words, for every species there are some aspects of functioning in which temporal relationships are central or critical, whereas there will be other aspects of functioning in which temporal relationships play only a very minor, if not non-existent, role.

The ratio between these two possibilities (i.e., instances in which temporality is important and instances in which temporality is relatively unimportant) establishes a given species' temporal identity. Temporal identity sets the tone, orientation and so on with which a given organism will interact with different patterns of external rhythms under various circumstances.

The phenomenon of critical periods is one of the modes through which the temporal identity of a given species or individual is given expression More specifically, for a large number of species, there seem to be temporal phase windows, of varying lengths of time, within which the learning of various kinds of behavior or the development of certain kinds of capabilities must take place. Vision in kittens, social behavior in monkeys, the singing of songs in different species of birds, identification of the mothering-one in geese, and language in human beings, are all examples of learned behaviors which appear to be shaped by the structural character of the temporal windows that seem to form integral aspects of the temporal identity of the respective species.

Other kinds of learning also exhibit a rootedness in the ratio of temporal constraints and temporal degrees of freedom. Honeybees, for example, are able to learn certain information concerning the scent, color, location, and distance of a source of nectar. However, each segment of information can be learned only at certain phase states during the bees interaction with the nectar source.

More specifically, the honeybee only can learn the color of a flower in the two second period just prior to landing on the flower. Secondly, the honeybee only can learn the scent of a flower when it has actually landed on the plant. Thirdly, the honeybee is able to learn the location of the nectar source only as it leaves the flower on which it has landed. Finally, the honeybee can learn the location of the hive entrance only when it leaves the hive as it goes in search of food sources.

In all of these cases, the temporal phase linking the honeybee to the learning cycle assumes a fundamental importance. If anything disrupts the temporal window within which, and through which, certain kinds of data must be stored in the honeybee's memory, then, learning of the requisite sort will not take place.

The fact that in some species there are critical temporal windows or critical phase relationships which must exist in order for certain kinds of learning to occur raises the question of whether there are similar sorts of temporal windows of learning in human beings. This is an issue of some importance.

For example, the network of phase relationships which arises as a result of the dialectic between a given individual's temporal identity and the way in which a given curriculum program allows a topic to unfold over time may play a fundamental role in determining the way in which the individual engages, and is engaged by, the subject matter. The structural character of such an engagement process may affect, in turn, both the quality and quantity of learning which occurs in relation to a given subject matter.

Some curriculum programs may enhance an individual's likelihood of learning because such a program is conducive to the individual's mode of temporal identity. As a result, a resonance process arises that permits heuristic transitions in some of the ratios of constraints and degrees of freedom governing an individual's understanding.

On the other hand, other curriculum programs may diminish an individual's likelihood of learning since such a program is not compatible with the structural character of the individual's temporal identity. In other words, the dialectic between individual and curriculum does not permit a resonance process to be established that is conducive to heuristic transitions in the ratios of constraints and degrees of freedom governing that individual's understanding.

Sometimes a curriculum program may need to expand the character and quantity of constraints surrounding the unfolding of a given subject matter in relation to an individual of a given temporal identity. At other times, one may need to decrease the character and quantity of such constraints for a given individual.

Similarly, sometimes one may need to expand the character and quantity of the degrees of freedom surrounding the unfolding of a given subject in relation to an individual of a certain temporal identity. At other times, such degrees of freedom may need to be decreased.

Phase relationships may play an important role in, yet, another aspect of the manner in which temporal identity is linked to the process of learning. This further possibility concerns some of the techniques associated with super-learning or suggestopedia.

One of the reasons why baroque music of a particular time signature has proven to be so integral an aspect of super-learning programs seems to be because the temporal identity of human beings as a species finds such a tempo to be compatible with enhanced learning opportunities. Alternatively, perhaps one of the reasons why some people have experienced only limited success with the super-learning program is because different individuals may require music with slightly different time signatures that may, or may not, be harmonically related to the baroque music time signature.

Moreover, the visualization techniques, together with the practice of positive self-regard and relaxation exercises, used in conjunction with the super-learning program, may all help to focus, and/or heuristically orient, the network of phase relationships through which one engages, and is engaged by, learning material. The combined effect of all these processes may help to create creodes or canalized pathways which make learning easier and more efficient.

The temporal character of sleep

In experiments involving human beings, in which all time cues were removed from the experimental situation and people were allowed to set their own routine with respect to sleeping, eating, working, and so on, scientists found a number of themes which, on average, seemed to be characteristic of human sleep. Apparently, sleep patterns are shaped by several distinct components.

One of the components shaping the sleep cycle is innate. The other component shaping the sleep cycle is a function of the way an individual interacts with on-going environmental contingencies involving work, recreation, social relationships, and so on.

Part of the innate component of sleep has to do with how long, in general, any given period of sleep lasts. This component is strongly influenced by a biological clock intrinsic to the genetic blueprints that lay down the spectrum of ratios of constraints and degrees of freedom which shape biological patterns.

Moreover, the onset of sleep is also affected by an innate biological clock since, on average, people tend to seek out sleep a short time after the core temperature of the body has reached its lowest level. As indicated previously, the cyclical character of deep body temperature is regulated by a biological clock.

The structural character of the sleep cycle has four or five fundamental stages which run in sequence throughout a 'normal' period of sleep. These stages are differentiated from one another by, among other things, the frequency signature of the brain waves which occur during a given stage of sleep, as well as, at least in some stages of sleep, the level of synthesis activity of certain neurotransmitters (namely, acetylcholine, norepinephrine and serotonin).

At various, relatively regular, intervals (approximately every 90 minutes) during the running of the sleep sequence, the REM phenomenon occurs. REM sleep is characterized by a paralysis of the muscles of the body, a heightened level of activity of the nervous system, and vivid dreaming. Usually, REM sleep occurs after, or in conjunction with, stage 2 sleep, once the sleep sequence has completed the following sequence of stages: 1,2,3,4,3,2.

With the exception of stage 1, this pattern is repeated a number of times throughout the period of sleep. Finally, the amount of time which any given individual spends in REM sleep tends to be both characteristic of the individual, as well as relatively stable over the course of the individual's life.

Allan Hobson and Robert McCarley have studied the aminergic and cholinergic components of the biological clocks that help regulate and shape not only the waking-sleep cycle, but the sleep-dream cycle as well. The aminergic component, which is located in a specialized group of cells in the brainstem, gives expression to the so-called amine force. This 'force' is responsible for the synthesis and release of the neurotransmitters, serotonin and norepinephrine.

There is second group of specialized cells in the pons which gives expression to the cholinergic force. This 'force' controls the synthesis and release of acetylcholine.

According to Hobson and McCarley, the aminergic system plays a fundamental role in bringing about and sustaining the waking portion of the wake-sleep cycle. All throughout the waking state, serotonin and norepineprhine are synthesized and released in a regular, clock-like fashion. The effect of these manifestations of the aminergic force is, among other things, to inhibit the activity of the giant pons cells which are the locus of synthesis of acetylcholine.

During the sleep segment of the wake-sleep cycle, the activity of the aminergic system is suppressed. This results in the disinhibition of the cholinergic system. Once disinhibited, this system proceeds to synthesize and release acetylcholine.

The combined effect of the gradual suppression of the activity of the aminergic system, together with the disinhibition of the cholinergic system, permits a variety of systems of the nervous system to become activated. One of the systems activated in this manner begins synthesizing a neurotransmitter which is conveyed to the voluntary muscle system.

When this neurotransmitter arrives at the site of the voluntary muscle motor plates, it takes on the function of a blocking agent with respect to motor nerve impulses, thereby, preventing movement of arms, legs and so on. In addition, Hobson and McCarley believe the combined effect of the suppression of the aminergic system, along with the disinhibition of the cholinergic system, leads to the increased level of activity of the nervous system out of which REM sleep arises. REM sleep activity is specifically stimulated by the presence of acetylcholine.

Biogenic amine neurotransmitter theory prospects and problems

In broad, general terms, one can categorize brain circuitry in two ways. On the one hand, there are circuits which are dominated by fast-acting but short-lived neurotransmitters such as acetylcholine (which excites cellular activity in the nervous system) and GABA (gamma amine butyric acid) (which inhibits cellular activity in the nervous system). These neurotransmitters are generally found in motor and sensory circuits where speed of response is important.

On the other hand, there are brain circuits which are dominated by relatively slow-acting but long-lived neurotransmitters like serotonin and norepinephrine. These neurotransmitters are generally associated with activities of learning and attention.

Although the roles of acetylcholine and GABA have been mapped out fairly precisely in relation to sensory and motor activity, such is not the case with respect to the roles of serotonin and norepinephrine in relation to learning and attention activities. In other words, although serotonin and norepinephrine may be implicated in conscious, intelligent activities, just how they bring about such activities, or how they sustain them, or how they underwrite a system which permits differential attention is not known.

Surely, any attempt to reduce the extremely diverse and complicated possibilities surrounding learning/intentional activity to being a function of biogenic amine neurotransmitters, will encounter theoretical difficulties. For example, even if there were 25 or 30 of these sort of neurotransmitters (i.e., enough for a complex alphabet of sorts), one still would be faced with the following problem: biogenic amine neurotransmitters, such as serotonin and norepinephrine, do not control their own levels or rates of synthesis. Nor do they control where in the nervous system they will be sent or when they will be released for propagation. Thus, even if one were to suppose that learning and attention are somehow reducible to being a function of various combinations of biogenic amine neurotransmitters, one needs to uncover the structural character of the system which is responsible for organizing, shaping, regulating and directing the components of the biogenic amine code to form the complex, diverse structural properties characteristic of both learning and intentional activity.

In a sense, the problem facing the biogenic amine neurotransmitter theory of learning and attention is, at best, like that of a person who is trying to decode an alien language. When a language is radically dissimilar from any with which one is familiar, one may not be able to apply the normal mathematical rules of decryption.

If the problems facing the biogenic amine neurotransmitter theory of learning and attention are comparable to those facing the decryption of an alien language, then, all that the biological cryptologist has to go on is, at most, a few letters of the alien alphabet (i.e., the known neurotransmitters). Knowledge of these letters, however, is not accompanied by any understanding of how the letters are organized to give expression to the sort of syntactical or semantical processes that are capable of giving expression to learning and attention.

There are further problems that arise if the biogenic amine neurotransmitter system of learning and attention does not operate like a language. If this is the case, then, biogenic amines such as serotonin and norepinephrine are not analogs for letters or words and have some entirely different functional role which they fulfill. What this role might be, no one presently knows.

However, irrespective of what their role might be, the underlying problem which needs to be solved remains the same. In each case, one needs to discover the identity of the structural character of the process or mechanism responsible for the organizational capacities which establish the spectrum of ratios of constraints and degrees of freedom that give expression to the learning and attentional pathways.

These pathways could be characterized by waveforms of synthesis activity that have varying frequencies, amplitudes and wavelengths involving different biogenic amines or different combinations of such amines. In fact, to a certain extent, various biogenic amine neurotransmitters may be just a medium of transmission for some underlying source of information, order, communication or organization. If so, one should pay more attention to the shape and character of the wave being propagated by the amine medium than one pays to the medium itself.

If the foregoing were the case, then, the idea of wavelength may have something to do with the duration of the burst of synthesis activity of a particular biogenic amine, whereas frequency may have something to do with how often such a wavelength is generated per unit of time greater than the duration period. Furthermore, amplitude might have to do with the level of intensity of the synthesis activity surrounding a given biogenic amine.

Then, one would have to work out a functional relation between different waveform properties and various kinds of learning and attentional behavior. In addition, an extra dimension of vectoral shaping might be introduced if one were to assume that the same waveform propagated through different biogenic amine mediums might mean quite different things or have quite different functions in different circumstances.

Throughout all of the aforementioned sort of waveform activity, the property of phase relationships would play an extremely important role of shaping and communicating various aspects of understanding. Indeed, in light of the fact that more and more aspects of biological functioning are being construed in terms of periodic, cyclical, or rhythmic patterns of activity, the need to map out phase relationships within, and among, such cyclical patterns of activity, as well as to map out the character of phase transitions under various circumstances of learning and attention becomes increasingly pressing.

In this sense, the brain or nervous system would become like an amalgamation of dialectically interacting phase states. Such states may be extremely receptive to sympathetic vibrations (i.e., the phenomenon of resonance) from a variety of other dimensions that are in a compatible or synchronous phase state.

The foregoing suggests the temporal dimension might serve as an ideal medium through which information about phase state, phase relationship and phase quanta could be exchanged among a variety of quite different (in terms of the spectrum of ratios of constraints and degrees of freedom which characterize them) dimensional mediums. In other words, given that the temporal dimension can be conceived of as sharing a common boundary (in the form of a set of phase relationships) with virtually every other dimensional structure, one easily could suppose that a great deal of information concerning the phase states of different dimensions might be transmitted via the temporal dimension. One could further suppose that such transmitted phase information might become entangled with whatever dimensional dialectic activity exhibited an organizational or structural or ordered resonance.

If the foregoing suppositions are true, then, one of the common currencies of communication of information in the universe may be phase quanta, phase relationships and phase states. All of these phase modes are manifestations of the sort of constraints and degrees of freedom to which the temporal dimension helps give expression during its dialectic with other dimensions.

Ultradian rhythms. temporal Identity and learning proficiency

Daniel Kripke and David Sonnenschein have run a series of studies indicating that many people seem to go through waking cycles, lasting approximately 90 minutes, in which they have reverie or fantasy experiences of a spontaneous nature at the beginning and/or end of such cycles. While these reverie episodes exhibited some degree of resemblance to REM-stage dreaming, they were not accompanied by the characteristic rapid eye movements of REM-sleep. Therefore, these reverie rhythms are not considered to be waking counterparts to REM-stage dreaming.

Both REM-stage dreaming, as well as the waking reverie cycles, are examples of ultradian rhythms. These are rhythms lasting less than the 24 hour period of the more easily detectable circadian rhythms. A number of chronobiologists believe there are a number of ultradian rhythms occurring in human beings. Moreover, these chronobiologists believe such ultradian phenomena may form a number of related and interacting, rhythmic families.

Another example of an ultradian rhythm involves the idea of sleepability. Sleepability refers to the ability of a person to go to sleep at a given time. Researchers have discovered there are temporal windows opening up on a regular basis.

An individual can go to sleep more easily when these windows are open than when they are closed. Generally speaking, these temporal windows open approximately every 90 minutes.

There also appear to be temporal windows of wakeability. These are periods of time during the sleep cycle when the individual can awaken more easily relative to other periods of the sleep cycle. One example of a wakeability window occurs during the REM-stage of sleep. Wakeability appears to be another example of an ultradian rhythm.

Despite the fact the foregoing examples of ultradian rhythms, along with a number of other instances of such rhythms, have cycles lasting approximately 90 minutes, there does not seem to be any master biological clock synchronizing all of these oscillating systems. In other words, the similarity of cycle length not withstanding, all of these ultradian rhythms appear to be independent of one another.

Another example of how ultradian rhythms may play an important role in shaping the structural character of human behavior concerns evidence that suggests there are significant differences in the storage-efficiency of short-term and long-term memory. This evidence indicates memory storage-efficiency is dependent on the time of day one is given certain kinds of memory tasks.

Apparently, short-term memory reaches a peak of efficiency somewhere between 10-11 A. M.. Long-term memory, on the other hand, seems to reach a peak of efficiency later in the day.

For instance, children who were read a story at 9:00 A.M. were able to recall fewer details of that story than were children who were read the same story at 3:00 P.M.. The data seems to indicate there is a 15 % difference in storage-efficiency.

If the foregoing finding holds across the board, then, it may have fairly substantial implications for how one structures the school day. For example, although teachers obviously would like students to remember everything being taught, some material may be more essential or critical than other course material. The experimental data alluded to above indicates the more essential course material might be saved for the latter portion of the afternoon when it has a better chance of staying in long-term memory.

The foregoing data concerning memory storage-efficiency, however, may have to be modulated somewhat by other kinds of experimental findings. A certain amount of evidence has been uncovered which differentiates between two broad categories of temporal identity in human beings.

The members of one group have been labeled "owls". The individuals in the other group are referred to as "larks". As the respective names suggest, owls tend to have their period of peak activity late in the day, whereas larks manifest a period of peak activity during the early part of the day.

Interestingly enough, a major biochemical difference between the two groups has to do with the amount of epinephrine secreted by individuals in each group during the morning hours. Epinephrine, which is associated with biological stimulation, is secreted in greater quantities, during the morning hours, by the larks.

One wonders if there is a way for the two experimental results outlined above to be combined so that all categories of individuals could gain the greatest benefit from the effect such rhythms have on the potential for learning, alertness and so on? For instance, should one assign students to classes according to the character of their temporal identity?

One also wonders if larks will learn more efficiently in the afternoon as the first study cited above suggests, or whether their temporal identity will overshadow the apparent enhancement of memory efficiency associated with mid-afternoon learning. Or, could one explain the apparent enhancement of memory efficiency in mid-afternoon learning by the presence of a larger number of owls, relative to larks, in the sample subjects? Whatever the answer to these questions might be, biological rhythms, together with their complex expression in the form of temporal identity, would seem to be important areas to explore in relation to the educational process.

While the biological rhythms occurring in humans are innate, their structural character is not instinctual in any narrow sense. There is some degree of flexibility inherent in these rhythms.

Therefore, although they play a significant role in shaping various aspects of behavior, they do not rigidly control behavior. Quite frequently, the manner in which biological rhythms manifest themselves is itself susceptible to being shaped, to a certain extent, by directed awareness.

For example, experimental work has established that when human beings undertake a task requiring some degree of concentration for an extended period of time, they go through a cycle of, first, enhanced efficiency, followed by a deterioration of efficient engagement of the given task. Then, this cycle repeats itself.

The length of each cycle is approximately 90 minutes. Thus, such a cycle is an ultradian rhythm.

Apparently, the cycle is set in motion by an individual's decision to engage some task requiring conscious attention. Within certain limits, each new engagement decision resets the ultradian efficiency clock so that another cycle is initiated.

Obviously, if a change in the direction of conscious attention is made too frequently, this, presumably, would have a dampening effect on the efficiency cycle. In other words, one would never be able to get far enough into the task in order to make the heightened awareness payoff. Consequently, there would seem to be some minimal amount of time which would have to be spent in the cycle to get the most out of it.

Furthermore, under some circumstances, there might be other sorts of forces shaping the ultradian cycle of efficiency. For instance, there are cases in which one becomes deeply engrossed in what one is doing because one finds a given issue or task extremely intriguing, interesting, challenging, stimulating, rewarding, and so on.

Under these sort of circumstances, the 90 minute cycle may not be in effect. In other words, there may be thresholds involving interest/reward/challenge which, in being exceeded, lead to the shutting down of the aforementioned ultradian cycle that normally governs mental alertness.

Alternatively, if the ultradian rhythm concerning mental alertness is in effect (i.e., not shut down or switched off), the down aspect of the cycle may be greatly attenuated as it is swamped by other, more powerful cycles. As a result, there may not be much deterioration of mental alertness during such circumstances.

A further possibility is the following consideration. Within the context of the task, work or issue being engaged, there may be a number of new, interesting twists and turns, each of which resets the efficiency cycle.

However, because all of the twists and turns are bound together within the framework of a thematically directed latticework of interest/reward/challenge, the change in focus does not become disruptive to, or interfere with, or act as a suppressor of, efficient engagement as would be the case if the twists and turns were unrelated to one another. Indeed, such a latticework may operate as a strange or chaotic attractor in which the various re-settings of the ultradian mental alertness cycle give expression to a self-similar (and, therefore, linked) series of rhythms.

This latter point concerning the possibility of the synergetic effect of introducing twists and turns within a given task framework has some potentially interesting implications for educational theory and the planning of classes, homework, assignments and so on. Possibly, if one can find the right kind of twists and turns within the context of a certain task framework, one may be able to provide the individual with a means to reset the ultradian efficiency clock on a regular basis, and, thereby, within certain limits, keep the individual at peak efficiency for a longer period of time.

The foregoing considerations seem to suggest that not only are there biological rhythms, but there also are what might be referred to as epistemological and/or hermeneutical rhythms. Furthermore, these biological rhythms and epistemological/hermeneutical rhythms dialectically interact with one another in a process of mutual vectoring or tensoring.

In the light of the foregoing considerations, when something is learned may be as important as what is learned. The phase orientation one has as one begins to engage a given topic, issue, task, and so on, may significantly affect the structural character of the outcome of such an engagement. In other words, certain phase relationships, which play central roles in shaping learning and understanding, may be more amenable to heuristically valuable phase shifts or transitions during some phase states than during other phase states.

Each individual may be shaped by a variety of temporal windows affecting the efficiency with which, and way in which, learning and understanding occur. These temporal windows are a function of the dialectic among a variety of biological and epistemological/hermeneutical rhythms. If course material is engaged by an individual when a propitious ratio of such temporal windows are open, learning may be easier and more is not conducive to learning and understanding.

Similarly, before one can understand certain aspects of an issue, one may have to acquire the right sort of phase orientation with respect to such an issue. That is, one may have to get into, or be brought into, phase with the material as well as the educational setting through which the material is being introduced. Consequently, an important part of the educational process may be to assist the individual in constructing the right sort of phase state or phase orientation though which a constructive exchange of phase quanta (i.e., learning, understanding, etc.) is more likely to occur.